Mixed martial arts

Mixed martial arts
Mma ground fighting.jpg
Ryan McDonald (bottom) holds Juan Miranda in a headlock and delivers punches to the head .
Also known as Freestyle Fighting, Vale Tudo, No Holds Barred (NHB), Cage Fighting, Ultimate Fighting
Focus Various
Hardness Full contact
Olympic sport No

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a full contact combat sport that allows a wide variety of fighting techniques and skills, from a mixture of martial arts traditions and non-traditions, to be used in competitions. The rules allow the use of both striking as well as grappling techniques, both while standing and on the ground. Such competitions allow martial artists of different backgrounds to compete.

The roots of modern mixed martial arts can be traced back to various mixed style contests that took place throughout Europe, Japan and the Pacific Rim during the early 1900s. The combat sport of Vale Tudo that had developed in Brazil from the 1920s was brought to the United states by the Gracie family in 1993 with the founding of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Professional MMA events had also been held in Japan by Shooto starting back in 1989. In due course the more dangerous Vale Tudo style bouts of the early UFC's were made safer with the implementation of additional rules, leading to the popular regulated form of MMA seen today. Originally promoted as a competition with the intention of finding the most effective martial arts for real unarmed combat situations, competitors were pitted against one another with minimal rules.[1] Later promoters adopted many additional rules aimed at increasing safety for competitors and to promote mainstream acceptance of the sport.[2]

The name mixed martial arts was coined by Rick Blume, president and CEO of Battlecade, in 1995.[3] Following these changes, the sport has seen increased popularity with pay per view reach rivalling boxing and professional wrestling.[4]

Contents

History

Pre-modern

A Roman pancratium, an event showcased at the Roman Colosseum. Even as late as the Early Middle Ages, statues were put up in Rome and other cities to honour remarkable pankratiasts of Rome.

No-holds-barred reportedly took place in the late 1880s when wrestlers representing a huge range of fighting styles, including various catch wrestling styles, Greco-Roman wrestling and many others met in tournaments and music-hall challenge matches throughout Europe. In the USA the first major encounter between a boxer and a wrestler in modern times took place in 1887 when John L. Sullivan, then heavyweight world boxing champion, entered the ring with his trainer, Greco-Roman wrestling champion William Muldoon, and was slammed to the mat in two minutes . The next publicized encounter occurred in the late 1890s when future heavyweight boxing champion Bob Fitzsimmons took on European Greco-Roman wrestling champion Ernest Roeber. Reportedly, Roeber suffered a fractured cheekbone in this bout, but was able to get Fitzsimmons down on the mat, where he applied an armlock and made the boxer submit.

Another early example of mixed martial arts combat was the martial art of Bartitsu, founded in London in 1899, which was the first martial art known to have combined Asian and European fighting styles,[5] and which saw MMA-style contests throughout England, pitting European and Japanese champions against representatives of various European wrestling styles.[5]

Mixed style contests such as boxing vs. jujutsu were popular entertainment throughout Europe, Japan and the Pacific Rim during the early 1900s.[6] In Japan these contests were known as merikan, from the Japanese slang for "American [fighting]". Merikan contests were fought under a variety of rules including points decision, best of three throws or knockdowns, and victory via knockout or submission.[7]

In 1936, heavyweight boxing contender Kingfish Levinsky and veteran professional wrestler Ray Steele competed in a mixed match, which Steele won in 35 seconds.[8]

After the popularity of professional wrestling waned after World War I it split into two genres: "shoot", in which the fighters actually competed, and "show", which evolved into modern professional wrestling.[8]

In the late 1960s to early 1970s the concept of combining the elements of multiple martial arts was popularized in the west by Bruce Lee via his system philosophy of Jeet Kune Do. Lee believed that "the best fighter is not a Boxer, Karate or Judo man. The best fighter is someone who can adapt to any style, to be formless, to adopt an individual's own style and not following the system of styles." In 2004 UFC President Dana White would call Lee the "father of mixed martial arts." To this day, Bruce Lee is known as "father of modern mixed martial arts".[9]

Modern

Rich Franklin and Chuck Liddell in the main event of UFC 115.

The history of modern MMA competition can be traced to mixed style contests throughout Europe, Japan and the Pacific Rim during the early 1900s; the Gracie family's vale tudo martial arts tournaments in Brazil starting in the 1920s; and early mixed martial arts-themed professional wrestling matches (known as Ishu Kakutougi Sen in Japan) hosted by Antonio Inoki in Japan in the 1970s.

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) competitions were introduced in the United States with the first Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993.[10] The sport gained international exposure and widespread publicity in United States in 1993, when Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu fighter Royce Gracie handily won the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament, subduing three challengers in a total of just five minutes,[11] sparking a revolution in the martial arts.[12] Meanwhile Japan had its Shooto also called Vale Tudo in 1985 where fighter Rickson Gracie won the tournaments in 1994 and 1995, which continued interest in the sport resulting in the creation of the Pride Fighting Championships in 1997, where again Rickson participated and won.[13]

The movement that led to the creation of the UFC and Pride was rooted in two interconnected subcultures. First were the vale tudo events in Brazil, followed by the Japanese shoot wrestling shows. Vale tudo began in the 1920s with the "Gracie challenge" issued by Carlos Gracie and Hélio Gracie and upheld later on by descendants of the Gracie family.[14] In Japan in the 1970s, a series of mixed martial arts matches were hosted by Antonio Inoki, a former star of New Japan Pro Wrestling;[15] this inspired the shoot-style movement in Japanese professional wrestling, which eventually led to the formation of the first mixed martial arts organizations, such as Shooto, which was formed in 1985. The International Sport Combat Federation (ISCF) was created in May 1999 as the worlds first "MMA" Sanctioning body. This ushered in a new era of Mixed Martial Arts where it is once again recognized as a true sport worldwide. This was aided by certified officials and well developed rules that were built up from the ISCF's sister organization for kickboxing, the International Kickboxing Federation's (IKF) long developed system.

In November 2005 recognition of its effectiveness as a test came as the United States Army began to sanction mixed martial arts with the first annual Army Combatives Championships held by the US Army Combatives School.

The sport reached a new peak of popularity in North America in the December 2006 rematch between then UFC light heavyweight champion Chuck Liddell and former champion Tito Ortiz, rivaling the PPV sales of some of the biggest boxing events of all time,[4] and helping the UFC's 2006 PPV gross surpass that of any promotion in PPV history. In 2007, Zuffa LLC, the owners of the UFC MMA promotion, bought Japanese rival MMA brand Pride FC, merging the contracted fighters under one promotion[16] and drawing comparisons to the consolidation that occurred in other sports, such as the AFL-NFL Merger in American football.[17]

Evolution of fighters

Ground fighting is an intrinsic part of the sport.

As a result of an increased number of competitors, organized training camps, information sharing, and modern kinesiology, the understanding of the combat-effectiveness of various strategies has been greatly improved. UFC commentator Joe Rogan claimed that martial arts evolved more in the ten years following 1993 than in the preceding 700 years combined.[18]

"During his reign atop the sport in the late 1990s he was the prototype — he could strike with the best strikers; he could grapple with the best grapplers; his endurance was second to none. "
— describing UFC champion Frank Shamrock's early dominance [19]

The early years of the sport saw a wide variety of traditional styles—everything from sumo to kickboxing—but the continual evolution of the sport saw many styles prove ineffective, while others proved successful on their own.

In the early 1990s, three styles stood out for their effectiveness in competition: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, amateur wrestling and submission wrestling. This may be attributable in part to the grappling emphasis of the aforementioned styles, which were, perhaps due to the scarcity of mixed martial arts competitions prior to the early 90s, unknown to most practitioners of striking-based arts. Fighters who combined amateur wrestling with striking techniques found success in the standing portion of a fight, whilst Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu stylists had a distinct advantage on the ground: those unfamiliar with submission grappling proved to be unprepared to deal with its submission techniques. Shoot wrestling practitioners offered a balance of amateur wrestling ability and catch wrestling-based submissions, resulting in a well-rounded skillset. The shoot wrestlers were especially successful in Japan. As competitions became more and more common, those with a base in striking became more competitive as they acquainted themselves with takedowns and submission holds, leading to notable upsets against the then dominant grapplers. Subsequently, those from the varying grappling styles added striking techniques to their arsenal. This overall development of increased cross-training resulted in the fighters becoming increasingly multi-dimensional and well-rounded in their skills. The changes were demonstrated when the original UFC champion Royce Gracie who had defeated many opponents using Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu fought the then UFC Welterweight Champion Matt Hughes at UFC 60 and was defeated by a TKO from 'ground-and-pound'.[20]

Rules

A fighter wraps his hands prior to putting gloves on.

The rules for modern mixed martial arts competitions have changed significantly since the early days of vale tudo, Japanese shoot wrestling, and UFC 1, and even more from the historic style of pankration. As the knowledge about fighting techniques spread among fighters and spectators, it became clear that the original minimalist rule systems needed to be amended.[21] The main motivations for these rule changes were protection of the health of the fighters, the desire to shed the image of "barbaric, no rules, fighting-to-the-death" matches, and being recognised as a sport.

The new rules included the introduction of weight classes; as knowledge about submissions spread, differences in weight had become a significant factor. There are 9 different weight classes. These 9 weight classes include flyweight (up to 125 lb / 57 kg), bantamweight (126–135 lb / 61 kg), featherweight (136–145 lb / 66 kg), lightweight (146–155 lb / 70 kg), welterweight (156–170 lb / 77 kg), middleweight (171–185 lb / 84 kg), light heavyweight (186–205 lb / 93 kg), heavyweight (206–265 lb / 120 kg), and some organizations even go on to have a super heavyweight which is anything heavier than 265 pounds (120 kg).

Small, open-fingered gloves were introduced to protect fists in punches, reduce the occurrence of cuts (and stoppages due to cuts) and encourage fighters to use their hands for striking to allow more captivating matches. Time limits were established to avoid long fights with little action where competitors conserved their strength. Matches without time limits also complicated the airing of live events. The time limits in most professional fights are three 5 minute rounds, and championship fights are normally five 5 minute rounds. Similar motivations produced the "stand up" rule, where the referee can stand fighters up if it is perceived that both are resting on the ground or not advancing toward a dominant position.[21]

Gloves were first mandatory in Japan's Shooto promotion and were later adopted by the UFC as it developed into a regulated sport. Most professional fights have the fighters wear 4 oz gloves with little protection, whereas amateurs are required to wear a slightly heavier 6 oz glove for somewhat little more protection for the hands and wrist. In the U.S., state athletic and boxing commissions have played a crucial role in the introduction of additional rules because they oversee MMA in a similar way to boxing. Smaller shows may use more restrictive rules because they have less experienced fighters. In Japan and Europe, there is no regulating authority over competitions, so these organizations have greater freedom in rule development and event structure.

Official sporting associations in traditional martial arts have been working to reduce injuries by emulating amateur boxing, requiring protective equipment such as headgear. However, newer forms of competitive fighting have emerged to recreate the original spirit of the traditional events by minimizing or even eliminating protective gear. MMA is growing in popularity, and creates more scoring opportunities by allowing the use of both the hands and the feet. Some forms also allow for elbow and knee strikes. The more recently developed mixed martial arts fighting allows any maneuver except eye gouging, hair pulling, groin strikes, and finger bending.[22]

Many U.S. states have a "no elbow policy" for amateurs to help protect the young fighters from serious injury by cuts or concussions. The use of a "12-6" elbow has been banned by several organizations along with restrictions on the use of knees to a downed opponent, dictated by one person having a hand, arm, or knee on the ground. Knees to the head of a grounded opponent is allowed in Japanese MMA. Headbutts are also widely prohibited because they require little effort and can quickly open cuts that might cause a fight to be stopped due to injury rather than because there is a winner.

Victory

Victory in a match is normally gained either by the judges' decision after an allotted amount of time has elapsed, a stoppage by the referee (for example if a competitor can not defend himself intelligently) or the fight doctor (due to an injury), a submission, by a competitor's cornerman throwing in the towel, or by knockout.

Knockout (KO): as soon as a fighter becomes unconscious due to strikes, his opponent is declared the winner. As MMA rules allow ground fighting, the fight is stopped to prevent further injury to an unconscious fighter.

Submission: a fighter may admit defeat during a match by:

Technical Knockout (TKO)

Doctor Stoppage: the referee will call for a time out if a fighter's ability to continue is in question as a result of apparent injuries, such as a large cut. The ring doctor will inspect the fighter and stop the match if the fighter is deemed unable to continue safely, rendering the opponent the winner. However, if the match is stopped as a result of an injury from illegal actions by the opponent, either a disqualification or no contest will be issued instead.

Corner stoppage: a fighter's corner men may announce defeat on the fighter's behalf by throwing in the towel during the match in progress or between rounds.

Decision: if the match goes the distance, then the outcome of the bout is determined by three judges. The judging criteria are organization-specific.

Forfeit: a fighter or his representative may forfeit a match prior to the beginning of the match, thereby losing the match.

Disqualification: a "warning" will be given when a fighter commits a foul or illegal action or does not follow the referee's instruction. Three warnings will result in a disqualification. Moreover, if a fighter is injured and unable to continue due to a deliberate illegal technique from his opponent, the opponent will be disqualified.

No Contest: in the event that both fighters commit a violation of the rules, or a fighter is unable to continue due to an injury from an accidental illegal technique, the match will be declared a "No Contest".

Most fighters found that the best combination was to train in a few grappling styles such as Western Freestyle and Greco-Roman Wrestling, Brazilian Jiujitsu, judo, Sambo, or Submission Wrestling and a couple of striking arts such as Western boxing, Kick Boxing and Muay Thai.[23]

Clothing

Mixed martial arts promotions typically require that male fighters wear shorts as the only permissible attire, thus precluding the use of gi or fighting kimono to inhibit submission holds. Female fighters wear shorts and sports bras or other similarly snug-fitting tops.

The need for flexibility in the legs combined with durability prompted the creation of various fighting shorts brands, which then spawned a range of mixed martial arts clothing and casual wear available to the public.

Strategies

The techniques utilized in mixed martial arts competition generally fall into two categories: striking techniques (such as kicks, knees and punches) and grappling techniques (such as clinch holds, pinning holds, submission holds, sweeps, takedowns and throws). Although sanctioning bodies such as the IFFCF have rules and regulations for MMA, rules may vary between promotions. In many promotions they have adopted the unified rule system that the most popular promotion UFC has established. While the legality of some techniques (such as elbow strikes, headbutts and spinal locks) may vary, there is a near universal ban on techniques such as biting, strikes to the groin, eye-gouging, fish-hooking and small joint manipulation.[24][25][26]

Today, mixed martial artists must cross-train in a variety of styles to counter their opponent's strengths and remain effective in all the phases of combat. For instance, a stand-up fighter will have little opportunity to use their skills against a submission artist who has also trained in take downs. Many traditional disciplines remain popular as ways for a fighter to improve aspects of their game.[27][28]

Popular disciplines

Most 'traditional' martial arts have a specific focus and these arts may be trained to improve in that area. Popular disciplines of each type include:

Some styles have been adapted from their traditional form, such as boxing stances which lack effective counters to leg kicks and the muay thai stance which is poor for defending against takedowns due to the static nature, or Judo techniques which must be adapted for No Gi competition. It is common for a fighter to train with multiple coaches of different styles or an organized fight team to improve various aspects of their game at once. Cardiovascular conditioning, speed drills, strength training and flexibility are also important aspects of a fighter's training. Some schools advertise their styles as simply "mixed martial arts", which has become a genre in itself; but the training will still often be split in to different sections.

While mixed martial arts was initially practiced almost exclusively by competitive fighters, this is no longer the case. As the sport has become more mainstream and more widely taught, it has become accessible to wider range of practitioners of all ages. Proponents of this sort of training argue that it is safe for anyone, of any age, with varying levels of competitiveness.[29][30]

Hybrid styles

The standing fighter is attempting to escape defeat via armbar by slamming his opponent to the ground so that he will release his grip.

The following terms describe hybrid styles a fighter may use, over the course of a fight, to achieve victory. While some fighters have tallied notable victories by striking, ground-and-pound as well as submission throughout their careers, most fighters will rely on a smaller number of techniques while adopting a style that plays to their strengths.

Sprawl-and-brawl

Sprawl-and-brawl is a stand-up fighting tactic that consists of effective stand-up striking, while avoiding ground fighting, typically by using sprawls to defend against takedowns.

A sprawl-and-brawler is usually a boxer, kickboxer, Thai boxer or full contact karate fighter who has trained in wrestling to avoid takedowns to keep the fight standing. Often, these fighters will study submission wrestling to avoid being forced into submission, should they find themselves on the ground. This style can be deceptively different from traditional kickboxing styles, since sprawl-and-brawlers must adapt their techniques to incorporate takedown and ground fighting defense.

Strikeforce fighter, Cung Le, and also Former UFC champions Tim Sylvia and Chuck Liddell have been successful using sprawl-and brawl techniques.

Clinch fighting

Clinch fighting and dirty boxing are tactics consisting of using a clinch hold to prevent the opponent from moving away into more distant striking range, while also attempting takedowns and striking the opponent using knees, stomps, elbows, and punches. The clinch is often utilized by wrestlers that have added components of the striking game (typically boxing), and Muay Thai fighters.

Wrestlers may use clinch fighting as a way to neutralize the superior striking skills of a stand-up fighter or to prevent takedowns by a superior ground fighter. The clinch of a Muay Thai fighter is often used to improve the accuracy of knees and elbows by physically controlling the position of the opponent.

Former UFC champion Randy Couture is one of the most notable practitioners of clinch fighting. Also, current UFC middleweight champion Anderson Silva commonly uses knee strikes from a Muay Thai clinch.

Ground-and-pound

Ground-and-pound is a ground fighting tactic consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw, obtaining a top, or dominant position, and then striking the opponent, primarily with fists and elbows. Ground-and-pound is also used as a precursor to attempting submission holds.

This style is used by wrestlers or other fighters well-versed in submission defense and skilled at takedowns. They take the fight to the ground, maintain a grappling position, and strike until their opponent submits or is knocked out. Although not a traditional style of striking, the effectiveness and reliability of ground-and-pound has made it a popular tactic as it was first demonstrated as an effective technique by UFC and Pride grand prix champion, Mark Coleman.[31] It was then adopted as the signature style of former UFC welterweight champ Matt Hughes. Today, strikes on the ground are an essential part of a fighter's training.

Submission grappling

Apart from being a general martial arts, submission grappling is also a reference to the ground fighting tactic consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw and then applying a submission hold, forcing the opponent to submit. While grapplers will often work to attain dominant position, some may be more comfortable fighting from other positions. If a grappler finds themselves unable to force a takedown, they may resort to pulling guard, whereby they physically pull their opponent into a dominant position on the ground.

Submissions are an essential part of many disciplines, most notably Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, catch wrestling, judo, Sambo, shootwrestling, pankration, Army Combatives, and MCMAP. They were popularized in the early UFC events by Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock.

Women's competition

"Female fighting has been slow to start and finding our place amongst the male warriors has sometimes been a struggle. In 2001, when there was little interest in women's MMA. Thanks to many people, female fighters have come a long way and you will now find most MMA shows in America and Japan feature women's MMA matches.", Debi Purcell, founder of the website fightergirls.com, on the history of female competition.[32]

The sport of mixed martial arts has female athletes. Female fights are more prominent in Japan in promotions such as the all-female Valkyrie and Smackgirl (now known as JEWELS) since their first event in 2000.[33] However, there are few professional mixed martial arts organizations in the United States that invite women to compete. Although people have the perception that women are not as prominent as men in mixed martial arts, there has been a growing awareness of women in the sport due to popular female fighters and personalities such as Megumi Fujii and Gina Carano. Carano quickly became the face of women's MMA after appearing in the now defunct EliteXC MMA promotion; this was furthered by her appearances in the remake of the hit (US version) TV show American Gladiators. Other popular female fighters include Strikeforce's Female 145 lb. Champion Cristiane "Cyborg" Santos, Tara LaRosa, Megumi Fujii and Rosi Sexton.

Women fighting in MMA.

Strikeforce became the first major promotion in the U.S to have a female fight act as the main event on August 15, 2009. The fight between Carano and Santos attracted 856,000 viewers.[34] Santos made history with her victory over Carano as she became the first ever Strikeforce Women's 145 lb Champion.[35]

Safety

Mixed Martial Arts competitions have changed dramatically since the first Ultimate Fighting Championship in 1993, specifically with the inception of the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. The overall injury rate in MMA competitions is currently similar to other combat sports, including boxing.[36][37]

MMA is dangerous, and its fighters are put at a serious risk of injury each time they enter the cage. MMA fighters are given more care and precaution than athletes in most other sports. With supervised fights, pre- and post-fight MRIs, four ringside doctors and two ambulances in case of emergency at each event, and mandatory steroid testing, these organizations reach the highest levels of safety and quality in all aspects of the sport. It is said that MMA is safer than boxing, with no organization fighter having ever suffered a serious injury or death.[10]

A study by Johns Hopkins University concluded, "the overall injury rate [excluding injury to the brain] in MMA competitions is now similar to other combat sports [involving striking], including boxing. Knockout rates are lower in MMA competitions than in boxing. This suggests a reduced risk of traumatic brain injury in MMA competitions when compared to other events involving striking."[38]

Fatality rate

Although deaths occur in Muay Thai and boxing, sprained fingers and toes; cuts and bruises on the head, face, and neck; and bloody noses are the most common injuries in MMA.[39]

However, statistics from the Velasquez Collection show that there were over 68 deaths related to boxing training or matches between 2000 and 2007. The majority of deaths are related to professional boxing matches (as compared with amateur or toughman competitions). Approximately 80% of these boxing-related deaths have been the result of serious brain injury (specifically, acute subdural hematoma).[40]

While competition in the MMA is occasionally depicted as brutal by the media,[41] there have only been two documented cases of deaths after a sanctioned MMA event.[42] The first was the death of Sam Vasquez on November 30, 2007.[43] Vasquez collapsed shortly after being knocked out by Vince Libardi in the third round of an October 20, 2007 fight at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas.[44] Vasquez had two separate surgeries to remove blood clots from his brain, and shortly after the second operation suffered a major stroke and never regained consciousness.[43] While questions have been asked about Vasquez's health before his final bout, no firm indications of pre-existing problems have yet surfaced. The second death stemming from a sanctioned mixed martial arts contest happened in South Carolina on June 28, 2010, when 30-year old Michael Kirkham was knocked out and never regained consciousness. He was pronounced dead two days after the fight.[45]

According to The Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, MMA must continue to be supervised by properly trained medical professionals and referees to ensure fighter safety in the future.[10]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Plotz, David (November 16, 1997). "Fight Clubbed". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/46344/. Retrieved 2006-12-26. 
  2. ↑ McFarland, Matt (May 6, 2008). "Ultimate Fighting wants to come to NY". WNYT.com. http://wnyt.com/article/stories/S435831.shtml?cat=300. Retrieved 2008-05-06. 
  3. ↑ UMSTEAD, THOMAS (September 18, 1995). "Operators struggle again with UFC time overrun". Cable & Wireless Inc. Multi Channel News. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-17777872.html. Retrieved 2009-01-15. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Trembow, Ivan (March 1, 2007). "UFC PPV Revenue Tops $200 Million in 2006". MMA Weekly. http://www.mmaweekly.com/absolutenm/templates/dailynews.asp?articleid=3520&zoneid=3. Retrieved 2007-06-18. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Noble, Graham (March 2001). "An Introduction to E. W. Barton-Wright (1860-1951) and the Eclectic Art of Bartitsu". Journal of Manly Arts. http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2001/jmanlyart_noble_0301.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-14. 
  6. ↑ "Journal of Combative Sport: Jujitsu versus Boxing". Journal of Combative Sport. http://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_JapanTimes_1199.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-07. 
  7. ↑ "Fighting Spirit: An Introductory History of Korean Boxing, 1926-1945". Journal of Combative Sport. http://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_svinth_0801.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-16. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Willoughby, David P. (1970). The Super Athletes. A.S. Barnes & Co., Inc. pp. 376–380. ISBN 0-498-06651-7. 
  9. ↑ Wickert, Marc. 2004. Dana White and the future of UFC. kucklepit.com. See Wikiquotes for the text.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Bledsoe, G. (2006). Incidence of Injury in Professional Mixed Martial Arts Competitions. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, CSSI, 136-142.
  11. ↑ "Fight Finder - UFC 1 The Beginning". Sherdog.com. http://www.sherdog.com/fightfinder/fightfinder.asp?search=yes&EventID=7. 
  12. ↑ Peligro, Kid (2003). The Gracie Way: An Illustrated History of the World's Greatest Martial Arts Family. Invisible Cities Press. pp. 79–84. ISBN 1-931229-28-7. 
  13. ↑ "What is Pride?". Pride. http://www.pridefc.com/pride2005/about/whats_about01.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-23. 
  14. ↑ Walter, Donald (December 8, 2003). "Mixed Martial Arts: Ultimate Sport, or Ultimately Illegal?". Grapple Arts. http://www.grapplearts.com/Mixed-Martial-Arts-1.htm. Retrieved 2006-02-25. 
  15. ↑ Martin, Todd (November 6, 2007). "The overlooked origins of mixed martial arts". Kocosports.com. http://www.kocosports.com/absolutenm/anmviewer.asp?a=18493&z=9. Retrieved 2007-11-06. 
  16. ↑ Doyle, Dave (April 4, 2000). "UFC scores TKO on its business rival". Fox Sports, MSN. http://msn.foxsports.com/boxing/story/6615122. Retrieved 2007-03-27. 
  17. ↑ "Source: UFC buys Pride for less than $70M". Associated Press, ESPN. March 27, 2007. http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/news/story?id=2814235. Retrieved 2007-06-15.  " This is really going to change the face of MMA. Literally creating a sport that could be as big around the world as soccer. I liken it somewhat to when the NFC and AFC came together to create the NFL" —Lorenzo Fertitta, one of the UFC's majority owners
  18. ↑ (PPV) UFC 40: Vendetta. Zuffa (November 22, 2002). Event occurs at 1:00 into Chuck Liddell vs. Renato Sobral.  "The evolution of martial arts since 1993, since the UFC came around, martial arts have evolved more than they have in the last 700 years. We know exactly now what works in a real live situation with two warriors fighting. For a long time that was just speculation." —Joe Rogan
  19. ↑ Sloan, Mike (June 22, 2007). ""No Win" Situation is Must Win for Shamrock". Sherdog, ESPN. http://www.sherdog.com/news/articles.asp?n_id=8036. Retrieved 2007-06-22. 
  20. ↑ Sherdog.com. "UFC 60 Results on Sherdog". Sherdog.com. http://www.sherdog.com/fightfinder/fightfinder.asp?search=yes&EventID=3666. Retrieved 2009-09-12. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Krauss, Erich (1 December 2004). Warriors of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. U.S.: Citadel Press Inc.,. ISBN 0806526572. 
  22. ↑ Young, C. (2002). Extreme Sports: Injuries and Medical Coverage. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 1:306–311.
  23. ↑ Bolelli, D. (2003). A Technical Analysis of the Ultimate Fighting Championship in its formative years. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, Volume 12 # 3 .
  24. ↑ "Mixed Martial arts Unified Rules of Conduct". New Jersey State Athletic Control Board. September 5, 2002. http://www.state.nj.us/lps/sacb/docs/martial.html. Retrieved 2006-06-18. 
  25. ↑ "Nevada Administrative Code, Chapter 467, Unarmed Combat". Nevada State Athletic Commission. August 11, 2006. http://www.leg.state.nv.us/NAC/NAC-467.html. Retrieved 2006-06-18. 
  26. ↑ Davis, Gray (2001). "Laws & Regulations Governing Boxing & Martial arts in California" (PDF). California State Athletic Commission. http://www.dca.ca.gov/csac/laws/booklet.pdf. Retrieved 2006-06-18. 
  27. ↑ "St. Pierre Epitomizes Lightning Fast Evolution of Mixed Martial Arts". Bleacher Report. September 25, 2008. http://www.sportsline.com/columns/story/10790384. Retrieved 2008-10-18. 
  28. ↑ "They All Go Into the Dark: The Necessity of Evolution in MMA". CBS Sportsline. April 20, 2008. http://bleacherreport.com/articles/61410-they-all-go-into-the-dark-the-necessity-of-evolution-in-mma. Retrieved 2008-10-18. 
  29. ↑ Green, Andrew (December 20, 2005). "Kids in MMA". Innovative Martial arts. http://innovativema.ca/forum/view.php?pg=kidsinmma. Retrieved 2006-12-13. 
  30. ↑ Gutierrez, Luis. "JKD and Children". One Dragon Martial arts. http://onedragon.com/article_04.html. Retrieved 2006-12-13. 
  31. ↑ "UFC 10: Birth of ground ‘n’ pound". Yahoo. http://sports.yahoo.com/mma/news?slug=dd-ufcten041109&prov=yhoo&type=lgns. Retrieved 2010-01-19. 
  32. ↑ http://www.fightergirls.com
  33. ↑ Sherdog.com (2008-10-08). "Valkyrie Takes Flight Nov. 8". Sherdog.com. http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/valkyrie-takes-flight-nov-8-14700. Retrieved 2009-09-12. 
  34. ↑ Meltzer, Dave (2009-09-08). "Carano-Santos a ratings hit - UFC - Yahoo! Sports". Sports.yahoo.com. http://sports.yahoo.com/mma/news;_ylt=AjG53rLVLHtywuQDe5b5eZw9Eo14?slug=dm-ratings081809&prov=yhoo&type=lgns. Retrieved 2009-09-12. 
  35. ↑ "Cristiane “Cyborg” Santos Defeats Gina “Conviction” Carano, Becomes First Ever Strikeforce Female 145-Pound Champion | World Extreme Fighter ~ MMA Fights, Girls and Action". Worldextremefighter.com. http://worldextremefighter.com/2009/08/17/cristiane-cyborg-santos-defeats-gina-conviction-carano-becomes-first-ever-strikeforce-female-145-pound-champion/. Retrieved 2009-09-12. 
  36. ↑ Bledsoe, G. (2006).
  37. ↑ Incidence of Injury in Professional Mixed Martial Arts Competitions. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, CSSI, 136-142.
  38. ↑ Incidence of Injury in Professional Mixed Martial Arts Competitions - Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, study published in the Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, July 2006.
  39. ↑ Landa, J. (2004). Risk and Injuries in Contact Fighting. Journal of Combative Sport.
  40. ↑ http://ejmas.com/jcs/jcsart_svinth_a_0700.htm
  41. ↑ Telander, Rick (October 11, 2006). "Sweet science morphing into Brutality TV" (Reprint). Chicago Sun-Times. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20061011/ai_n16768457. Retrieved 2006-12-22. 
  42. ↑ Doyle, Dave (October 11, 2006). "MMA's alleged brutality, and more". http://community.foxsports.com/blogs/FOXSportsMMA/2006/10/11/MMAs_alleged_brutality_and_more. Retrieved 2006-12-22. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Update: Sam Vasquez Dead at 35". Sherdog.com. 2007-12-02. http://www.sherdog.com/news/news.asp?n_id=10203. Retrieved 2007-12-02. 
  44. ↑ Sievert, Steve (2007-11-26). "Mixed Martial Arts Notebook: Vasquez in toughest fight". Houston Chronicle. http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/sports/mixedmartialarts/5327913.html. Retrieved 2007-12-02. 
  45. ↑ "Fighter Dies in South Carolina After First Pro Bout". Sherdog.com. June 28, 2010. http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Fighter-Dies-in-South-Carolina-After-First-Pro-Bout-25374. Retrieved June 28, 2010. 

References

Professional mixed martial arts training associations
USA:
AMC Pankration · American Kickboxing Academy · American Top Team · Arizona Combat Sports · Cesar Gracie Jiu Jitsu Academy · DeathClutch · Grudge Training Center · H.I.T. Squad · Jackson's Mixed Martial Arts · Lion's Den · Minnesota Martial Arts Academy · Miletich Fighting Systems · The Pit · Roufusport · Team Lloyd Irvin · Team Punishment · Team Quest · Team Sityodtong · Wand Fight Team · Xtreme Couture
Brazil:
Black House · Brazilian Top Team · Chute Boxe Academy · Gracie Barra Combat Team · Gracie Humaitá · Nova União · Universidade da luta
Asia:
Abe Ani Combat Club · Grabaka · Paraestra · Takada Dojo · Yoshida Dojo · Wajyutsu Keisyukai
Canada:
Brazilian Top Team Canada · Team Tompkins · Tristar Gym
Europe:
Golden Glory · London Shootfighters · Red Devil Sport Club · Team Kaobon · Team Rough House · Vos Gym · Wolfslair MMA Academy
Australia:
Elite Fight Gym
Professional mixed martial arts organizations
United States promotions:
UFC • WEC • Strikeforce • Bellator Fighting Championships • XFC • King of the Cage • Shark Fights • IFC • RITC • Ring of Combat • Ohio Xtreme Fighting • WCF • USA-MMA • Shine Fights • MMA Big Show • Tachi Palace Fights • Extreme Challenge • Gladiator Challenge • VFC
Canadian promotions:
MFC • Xmma • Warrior-1 MMA • King Of The Cage Canada • TFC • CfC • XCW • AFC • EFC • Iroquois MMA Championships • Valley Fight • Aggression MMA
Japanese promotions:
DREAM • Sengoku • Shooto • ZST • DEEP • Pancrase • RINGS • Cage Force • Jewels • Valkyrie • Vale tudo Japan • RisingOn
Brazilian promotions:
Bitetti Combat • Jungle Fight • Combate Extremo • Meca vale tudo • Max Fight • Predador fc • Coca cola Brazil fight • IVC • Shooto Brazil • WFE • Amazon Fight • Nitrix Fighting Champioships • Fury FC • FCF • Desafio de Gigantes • WOCS
United Kingdom promotions:
Cage Warriors • Cage Wars • BAMMA • Ultimate Challenge MMA • British Fighting Championships •
European promotions:
M-1 Global • KSW • RESPECT.FC • Fight Festival • Finnfight • SLAMM!! Events • It's Showtime • The Zone FC • Kombat League • Cage Fight Series • MMA Raju • Superior Challenge • Beast of the East
Asian promotions:
Art of War • URCC • Fearless FC • Martial Combat • Moosin • FMC • ADFC • Israel FC
Oceanian promotions:
CFC • Impact FC • Ring Wars • Warriors Realm • Xtreme MMA
African promotions:
EFC Africa
Defunct promotions:
Adrenaline MMA • Affliction • Art of War (US) • BodogFight • Cage Fury FC • Cage Rage • EliteXC • HDNet Fights • HERO'S • Icon Sport • IFL • Ironheart Crown • PFC • Pride FC • Rio Heroes • Rumble on the Rock • Smackgirl • Spirit MC • TKO • UFO • Vyper Fight League • WFA • YAMMA Pit Fighting • World Alliance of Mixed Martial Arts •
Sanctioning bodies and networks:
Shooto • WWCN • North American Boxing Council • Association of Boxing Commissions • Japan Mixed Martial Arts Federation  • Asian Mixed Martial Arts Federation • World Martial Arts Federation of Singapore
Martial arts by focus
Martial arts are listed by area of primary focus. Note that they may include training in the other areas.
Striking
Bājíquán · Boxing · Capoeira · Dambe · Fistfight · Fujian White Crane · Karate · Kenpō · Kickboxing · Lethwei · Muay Thai · Northern Praying Mantis · Pradal Serey · Sanshou · Savate · Silat · Subak · Taekwondo · Tang Soo Do · Wing Chun
Grappling
Aikido · Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu · Catch Wrestling · Glima · Hapki yusul · Judo · Jujutsu · Kinomichi · Lucha libre · Luta Livre Esportiva · Malla-yuddha · Pehlwani · Puroresu · Sambo · Shuai Jiao · Ssireum · Sumo · Varzesh-e Pahlavani · Wrestling
Weaponry
Arnis · Bataireacht · Battōjutsu · Egyptian stick fencing · Eskrima · Fencing · Gatka · Gungdo · Haidong Gumdo · Iaidō · Iaijutsu · Jōdō · Kendo · Kenjutsu · Kyūdō · Kyūjutsu · Okinawan kobudō · Shurikenjutsu · Silambam · Sōjutsu
Mixed, hybrid,
and multi-discipline
Baguazhang · Bando · Bartitsu · Hapkido · Hung Ga · Hwa Rang Do · Jeet Kune Do · Kuk Sool Won · Kalarippayattu · Krav Maga · Keysi  · Kajukenbo · MCMAP · Nhat Nam · Ninjutsu · Oom Yung Doe · Pankration · Pencak Silat · Shaolin Kung Fu · Shippalgi · Shootfighting · Systema Taekkyeon · Tai chi chuan · Toso Kune Do · Vajra Mushti · Vovinam · Wushu · Xingyiquan · Zen Ki Bo
For a full list of articles see the List of martial arts